Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Food Analysis: A Brief Overview

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Chromatographic Techniques in Food Analysis
1.3 Spectroscopic Methods
1.4 Biologically-Based Methodologies in Food Analysis
References

Chapter 2: Recent Analytical Methods for the Analysis of Sweeteners in Food: A Regulatory Perspective

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sample Preparation
2.3 Analytical Methods
2.4 Future Trends
References

Chapter 3: Current Analytical Techniques for Food Lipids

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Official Methods for the Analysis of Fat in Foods
3.3 Conclusions
References

Chapter 4: Detection of Allergen Markers in Food: Analytical Methods

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Immunochemical Methods
4.3 Mass Spectrometry (MS) Methods
4.4 DNA-Based Methods
4.5 Method Validation
References

Chapter 5: GMO Analysis Methods for Food: From Today to Tomorrow

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Methods for Detection, Identification and Quantification of GMOs in Food
5.3 Conclusion
References

Chapter 6: Determination of Antioxidant Compounds in Foodstuff

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Common Antioxidants in Foodstuff
6.3 Antioxidants for Bioactive or Preservative Purposes
6.4 Analysis of Antioxidants in Foods
6.5 Conclusion
References

Chapter 7: Analytical Methods for Pesticide Detection in Foodstuffs

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sample Preparation
7.3 Chromatographic Methods
7.4 Detection of Pesticides
7.5 Specific Problems of Pesticide Residue Analysis
7.6 Future Trends and Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References

Chapter 8: Application of Chromatograpic Methods for Identification of Biogenic Amines in Foods of Animal Origin

8.1 Biogenic Amines
8.2 Importance of Biogenic Amines in Food of Animal Origin
8.3 Procedures for Chromatographic Methods in Biogenic Amines
8.4 Chromatography Applications in Food of Animal Origin
8.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 9: Advances in Food Allergen Analysis

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Proteins versus DNA as Targets for Food Allergen Analysis
9.3 Final Remarks
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 10: Food and Viral Contamination: Analytical Methods

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nucleic Acid Extraction and Purification
10.3 Virus Detection by Molecular Techniques
10.4 Assessment of Infectivity
10.5 Quality Controls
10.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 11: Application of Biosensors for Food Analysis

11.1 The Agrifood Sector
11.2 Food Quality and Safety Concepts
11.3 Effect of Unsafe Food on Human Health
11.4 Revealing Methods for Food Components and Contaminants
11.5 Biosensors: Definition, Market and Application Fields
11.6 Biosensors and Bioassays for the Detection of Food Components and Contaminants
11.7 Biosensors for Intelligent Food Packaging
11.8 Biosensor Technology to Sustain Precision Farming
11.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

Chapter 12: Immunoassay Methods in Food Analysis

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Immunoassays
12.3 Immunosensors
12.4 Lateral Flow Immunoassay (LFIA)
12.5 Sample Processing in Food Analysis
12.6 Outlook
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Solvent extraction (SE) official methods for the gravimetric determination of crude total fat in foods and food ingredients.
Table 3.2: AOAC official methods for the hydrolytic determination of crude total fat in foods and food ingredients.
Table 3.3: Official methods for the preparation of FAME from foods and food ingredients.
Table 3.4: Official methods for the separation of FAME by GC-FID.
Table 3.5: Standard reference materials (SRM) for the determination of fat and fatty acids currently available from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, Gaithersburg, MD, USA).

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Proteins identified as food allergens in major allergenic food sources.
Table 4.2: Multi-laboratory validation of methods used in quantitation of major food allergens in foods.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1: Commercial traits of approved Biotech/GM crop events for Abiotic Stress Tolerance, Altered Growth/Yield, Modified Product Quality and Pollination control systems (www.isaaa.org).
Table 5.2: Comparison of trait numbers of approved GM plants according to www.isaaa.org.
Table 5.3: The application status of some enzymes that are made with the help of GM microorganisms used in food processing in Europe (www.gmo-compass.org).
Table 5.4: Comparison of conventional GMO detection methods.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Principal classes of compounds with antioxidant activity and their natural sources.
Table 6.2: Antioxidant effects of natural extracts incorporated in different matrices.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1: Compilation of chromatographic methods for detection of biogenic amines in foods of animal origin.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1: Summary of the most recently reported applications of ELISA to detect/quantify the eight main allergenic foods.
Table 9.2: Summary of reported immunosensors for the detection of food allergens.
Table 9.3: Summary of reported MS-based methods for the detection/quantification of the eight main allergenic foods.
Table 9.4: Summary of advanced DNA-based methods for the detection of allergenic foods (real-time PCR with HRM analysis, single-tube nested real-time PCR, LPA).
Table 9.5: Summary of reported genosensors for the detection of allergenic foods.
Table 9.6: Summary of reported aptasensors for the detection of food allergens.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1: Procedures commonly used for virus extraction from shellfish.
Table 10.2: Procedures commonly used for virus extraction from soft fruits and salad greens.
Table 10.3: Procedures commonly used for detecting enteric viruses in bottled water.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1: Examples of food components monitored by electrochemical and optical bioassay and biosensors.
Table 11.2: Examples of water and food contaminants monitored by electrochemical and optical bioassay and biosensors.
Table 11.3: Maximum residue limit (MRLs) of some common agricultural pesticides and main toxic effects on human health resulting from high exposure to such chemicals.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1: Versatile immunoassays used in food safety.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1: Chemical structures of the non-nutritive sweeteners of varying molecular sizes and polarities: ERY, erythritol; XYL, xylitol; CYC, cyclamate; DUL, dulcin; SAC, saccharin; ACS-K, acesulfame potassium; ASP, aspartame; ALI, alitame; MAL, maltitol; NEO, neotame; SCL, sucralose; NHDC, neohesperidine dihydrochalcone; STV, stevioside; REB A, rebaudioside A; and MW, molecular weight.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1: Schematic overview of conventional analytical methods for the determination of total fat and fatty acids in foods and food ingredients.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Classification of methods commonly used for food allergen detection in foods.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1: PCR mechanism.
Figure 5.2: A GMO construct for designing different PCR reactions.
Figure 5.3: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
Figure 5.4: Lateral flow strips used in GMO detection.
Figure 5.5: Multiplex PCR.
Figure 5.6: Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA).
Figure 5.7: General scheme of a biosensor.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1: Conventional and nonconventional (innovative) methods used in the extraction of antioxidant compound from foodstuff.
Figure 6.2: The most common techniques used for the detection, quantification and structure elucidation of antioxidants present in natural matrices. DAD (diode array detector); ESI-MS (electrospray ionization mass spectrometry); GC (gas chromatography); HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography); HSCCC (high speed contercurrent chromatography); LC–MS (liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry); MS (mass spectrometry); NIRS (near infrared spectrometry); NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance); TLC (thin-layer chromatography); UPLC (ultra performance liquid chromatography); and UV-VIS (ultraviolet-visible).

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1: The main steps of analytical procedures used for determining pesticide residues in foodstuffs.
Figure 7.2: Schematic of a solid-phase experiment for isolation of pesticides.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1: Biogenic amines formation process in foods. His: Histamine; Ar: Arginine; Lys: Lysine; Or: Ornithine.
Figure 8.2: Determination of biogenic amines: Separation in liquid chromatography (LC) and three main dectectors employed; (a) ultraviolet, (b) fluorescence, and (c) mass spectrometry. DAD: diode array detector; Ex: exitation; Em: emission; OPA: o-phthaldialdehyde; ESI: electrospray ionization; APCI: atmospheric pressure chemical ionization.
Figure 8.3: Extraction and derivatization process to biogenic amines determination by HPLC/UV method proposed by Lázaro et al. [54].

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1: Schematic representation of immunochemical approaches applied to food allergen detection.
Figure 9.2: Schematic representation of single-tube nested real-time PCR system.
Figure 9.3: Schematic illustration of an electrochemical sandwich genosensor, involving hairpin capture probes chemisorbed on Au surfaces and biotinylated-signaling probes in combination with streptavidin-peroxidase labeling conjugates for selective detection of a repetitive and structured target codifying a gliadin fragment of gluten-containing cereals. Assay steps: modified screen-printed gold electrodes electrodes (A); hybridization experiments carried out in a sandwich-like format through two consecutive steps, homogeneous (B) and heterogeneous hybridization reactions (C); addition of Strp-HRP conjugate to the electrode surface (D); chronoamperometric measurement of the bound enzymatic activity (E); detection of enzymatic reaction (F). (Reprinted with permission from [100]; Copyright 2015 Springer)
Figure 9.4: Schematic representation of multi-step protocol for Ara h 1 protein detection in food matrix samples. Allergen from the food matrix is captured by aptamer on fiber optic surface plasmon resonance (FO-SPR) sensor tip followed by sandwich assay formation with polyclonal secondary antibodies, which lastly are used for further enhancement of the signal. (Reprinted with permission from [104]; Copyright 2015 Elsevier)

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1: Schematic representation of a biosensor.
Figure 11.2: Schematic representation of the three generations of amperometric glucose biosensors.
Figure 11.3: Structure of holo-glucose oxidase as solved by X-ray.
Figure 11.4: Schematic representation of the binding mechanism of glutamine binding protein by interferometric detection on silicon layer.
Figure 11.5: Schematic representation of FRET mechanism between FITC-GlnBP and rhodamine-labeled gliadin peptides.
Figure 11.6: Calibration curves for catechol by optical analysis employing FITC-labeled Tyrosinase enzyme.
Figure 11.7: Scheme of the assembled prototype of the microelectrodes array (MEA) biosensor (dynamic configuration with dimensions 20 × 30 × 10 cm).
Figure 11.8: Calibration curves for catechol by optical analysis employing laccase and rhodamine isothiocyanate-labeled enzyme.
Figure 11.9: Schematic representation of the modeled 3D structures of C. reinhardtii D1 and D2 proteins. Q_A and Q_B molecules are shown in ball-and-stick representation and colored in yellow. The oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) is shown in spheres and colored in blue, iron in pale green.
Figure 11.10: Calibration curves for atrazine by optical analysis employing five mutant strains from C. reinhardtii.
Figure 11.11: Schematic representation of the three-dimensional structure of C. reinhardtii reaction center (D1-D2 heterodimer). (a) Region of D1-D2 corresponding to the peptide highlighted in green. (b) Structural model of the biomimetic peptide. (c) Putative complex with atrazine obtained by docking simulations.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1: Schematic diagram of Indirect ELISA.
Figure 12.2: Schematic diagram of Sandwich ELISA.
Figure 12.3: Schematic diagram of surface plasmon-based immunosensor.
Figure 12.4: General schema of competitive type of lateral flow immunoassay.

Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Insights into Modern Food Science
The book series examines how modern society effects food science and it is intended to be an encyclopaedic knowledge base correlating the challenges of the XXI century to food science. The series will have five main themes: Food Production; Food Safety; Food and Health; Food Packaging; Food and the Law.

Series Editor: Giuseppe Cirillo
Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences,
University of Calabria,
Arcavacata di Rende (CS), Italy
E-mail: giuseppe.cirillo@unical.it

People are encouraged to submit proposals to the series editor.

Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)

Food Safety: Innovative Analytical Tools for Safety Assessment

Edited by

Umile Gianfranco Spizzirri

Giuseppe Cirillo

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Beverly, Massachusetts.
Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

For more information about Scrivener products please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-119-16055-7

Preface

Food safety and quality are key objectives for food scientists and industries all over the world, both in developed and developing countries. Several different approaches have been proposed to characterize and eventually improve the nutritional value and the safety standards of food products, with innovative and fashionable techniques acting on food production, processing and analysis.

With the aim to provide a detailed overview of recent developments in food science in a multidisciplinary context, from agriculture to chemistry and engineering, and from physics to biology and medicine, we planned a new book series highlighting how the knowledge and research in different fields can be applied to address quality and safety issues.

In this first volume we show the recent developments in the analytical techniques (based on both destructive and nondestructive detection) proposed to fit the government regulations related to food quality. The development of effective analytical routes for the evaluation of food quality and safety is, indeed, a key objective for the food industry, for both safe and valuable production and storage. The distinctive aspect of this project is the evaluation of both the nutritional and contamination elements in foodstuffs, with specific attention given to the efficiency and applicability in practical analyses.

The volume is organized into two parts. The first part is related to the evaluation of the major food components (e.g., protein, polysaccharides, lipds, vitamins, etc.), with particular attention paid to recent developments in the field. In the second part, the risks associated with food consumption are evaluated by exploring recent advances in the detection of the key food contaminants (e.g., pollutants, pesticides, toxins, etc.).

Thanks to the valuable contributions of scientists working in these specialized fields, we present a detailed overview of the available techniques, with key advantages and limitations, highlighting the possibility to select an innovative and effective strategy to achieve the main goal of maximizing the nutritional values of foodstuffs while minimizing the risk of toxicity for consumers.

Umile Gianfranco Spizzirri
Giuseppe Cirillo
Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences
University of Calabria
September 2016